ANALYZING THE CURRICULUM

Prof. George J. Posner

ANALYZING THE CURRICULUM

[The writer’s understanding listed when studied Analyzing the Curriculum using third edition book by George J. Posner (the scale 10-100 percent]

1. Introduction of Curriculum Analysis    

In my opinion this chapter has explained how to analyze the curriculum is. To find everything in which support to be curriculum is. The other side we say “to know anatomy of curriculum’. In this chapter also gives explanation about concurrent curriculum: official curriculum, operational curriculum, hidden curriculum, null curriculum, and extra curriculum.

From this chapter, I know that curriculum can be analyzed to know how to make and use the curriculum. And I still have confusing about the example of concurrent curriculum and the function. And I hope from this chapter, I can study how important every aspect in curriculum is than only knowing curriculum its self is. And I hope getting goodness from analyzing curriculum for myself.

2. Situating the Curriculum

From this chapter, I can know about the story behind the curriculum those are somebody who has contribution of curriculum form. Those are the teacher, the learner, the subject matter and milieu.

We discussed about the situating of curriculum, we know where does the curriculum come from, who develop the curriculum, why we develop the curriculum, and how a curriculum affected by social, and we learned about a curriculum as a response to a problem. And also from this chapter, I know the story behind the curriculum: problem formulation, it means that problem for formulation becomes once important that is announced. The problem formulation is happened because of many people behind the curriculum who have different beliefs about and commitment to educate of what people should learn to do school is.

What I got understand from this chapter is when we want to arrange the curriculum we have to consider about situating the curriculum and the developers and I still did not understand about the M:ACOS story, and no one curriculum is fortune enough to find full representative of all four commonplaces on its development team. And I measure 7 for my understanding, because I still comprehend these materials.

In this chapter, I have problem of understanding about what M: Acus is, even though I have read the explanation, but it can’t make me clear about the material. And I have known little of an example of problem formulation: A nation at risk. So the conclusion of this chapter is that I can understand little explanation even though I have read it. And I measure 65 percent for my understanding, because I still comprehend these materials.

3. Theoretical Perspectives on Curriculum         

We have learned chapter 3, and it tells about some theoretical perspectives on curriculum. There are five perspectives which we have learned. Those are traditional perspective, constructivist perspective, and structure of the discipline, experiential and behavioral perspective. In this section we divided into the groups and I got behavioral perspective. From the scale 10-100, I got 75 percent for my understanding of these materials. I just focus on the behavioral theory and I little bit confused between constructivist theory and experiential theory.

Constructivist theory focuses on how can people learn to make sense of the world and to think more productively and creatively and the proponent of this view is Immanuel Kant, Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky. From the scale 1-10, I got 6 for my understanding of these materials. I just focus on the behavioral theory and I little bit confused between constructivist theory and experiential theory.

                        I still remember that this chapter has talked about the five theoretical perspectives, and from this chapter, I have known about the content of each curriculum and about how important content curriculum is. And also I have known people that supported in each theoretical perspective.

            The five theoretical perspectives are:

1. Traditional that has been promoted by William Torrey Haris and it Focuses on transmitting the cultural heritage. And this perspective believes that the best old curriculum in the last years become a reference in the new curriculum. And the goal of this perspective is acculturation.
2. Experimental that has been promoted by John Dewey and it focuses on students’ experiences. And this perspective believes that all school’s activities should implicate the activities of life. And understanding how curriculum can be considered in this broadcast possible way. And developing clear and workable principles to guide practical division about such curriculum.
3. Structure of the disciplines that has been promoted by Jerrold Zacharias and it focuses on subject in the school and this perspective believes that is importance of deleting gap school students and university students. And teaching is only in the most fundamental concepts and teaching how to derive the rest of basics of knowledge from the concept.
4. Behavioral that has been promoted by Aristotle’s nad Edward Thorndike and it focuses on not only in the content, but what student should be able to do. And the specifics objectives derived from the analysis as the principal methods of curriculum development.
5. Constructivist that has been promoted by Plato and it focuses on emphasizing student’s mind means that making knowledge, intelligent that are emphasized on student where the teacher should know the development of intelligent on children.

From this chapter, I am very interested, because of the interesting topics. And I know kinds of perspectives of curriculum. The last I can give conclusion that I understand this chapter than the chapter before, even though there are still having many weakness of understanding. From I got 75 for my understanding of these materials. I just focus on the behavioral theory and I little bit confused between constructivist theory and experiential theory.

4. Curriculum Purpose and content    

In this chapter, I have still got same information as proving chapter, but in this more emphasized the purpose of the content of the curriculum. My understanding about this chapter is that each of the curriculums has a purpose and content. And I learned what is training and education.

 And there are some goals and objectives. Those are societal goals, administrative goals and educational aim, and educational goals and learning objectives. I did not understand the difference between educational aim and educational goals. As I got from this section that there are some views which related with , and curriculum purpose, like psychological view concerns with two aspects of curriculum; those are the conceptions of the subject matter and the forms of representation and multicultural view; this view is concern about the purpose of education is how to accommodate the diversity of the student population; the multicultural education. I didn’t understand with this view. And I think I understand this chapter very much. From the scale 10-100, I got 85 percent for my understanding of these materials, because I have known before from previous meeting, so it is only stabilization process.

5. Training and Educational Contexts for Curriculum

In this chapter, I can know difference of training and education in the context for curriculum that:

Training:          contexts in which we can predict with some confidence the specific situations in which people will use what they learn.

Education:       context in which we cannot predict with any specificity or certainty the situations in which people will use what they learn.

And I have known levels of educational purposes which include social goals, administrative goals, educational goals and aims, and learning objectives. And also I can know three levels relating one another which are the taxonomy bloom, Gagne’s categories, and Ryle’s two types of knowledge that are Two major types of knowledge one can acquire “knowing that” refer to propositional knowledge. “Knowing how” refer to performance capabilities, what we might call SKILLS. And the last, I have known the contents of curriculum which include a pedagogical view, a multicultural view, and aspect of technology and content in curriculum. I got 70 percent for my understanding of these materials.

 6. Curriculum Purpose and Content    

In this chapter has explained that the good curriculums in the present are behavioral and constructivist curriculum. Because both have reasons: behavioral curriculum (Learning is Change in behavior, conditional, habit formation, and having the concepts of organism and environment), while constructivist’s reasons are Cognitive concepts are emphasized, and every individual person uses different models to present the concept. And to get result of curriculum purpose, we need teacher’s roles means that there are many roles that teacher should do it such as; teacher has to have lesson plans, concept able and observable material. Technology in its relation into content also describes in this chapter. Technology offers the possibility of approaching and organizing content in new way and also creates an opportunity to teach content not otherways possible. Technology can change how content is covered by creating new disciplinary areas, reconfiguring disciplinary course context, etc. and the last is that I understand the almost the content of this chapter.

7. Perspectives on organizing principles and epistemological dimension: the structure of knowledge.    

Perspectives on organizing principles:

1. Traditional: focus on content (building information and skills), content sequence is typically based on the organization of subject matter itself, and every educated person should know basic skills and traditional values.
2. Structure of the principles: the central concept is disciplines serve as the organization of elements, and curriculum designed to the structure of disciplines.
3. Experimental: the experiences of students have as they engage in purposeful activities, and the content is most typically sequenced according to the way it lives used in dealing with everyday problems.
4. Behavior: it is organized around behavioral, and consist of terminal behavior.
5. Constructivist: cognitive concepts are emphasized, and every individual uses difference modes to present the concept.

The last, I think that I very understand this chapter, because I very interested to read, so that I was still having assignment about this chapter in my activity when I had to present the material about this chapter, and  I got 9 for my understanding of these materials.

8. Curriculum Organization     

We have learned the basic concept of curriculum organization and I got my understanding about this materials. First the curriculum organization divided into macro and micro organization. Macro level organization for the organization of courses to form of a progress and micro level organization are referring to the organization of a course or a unit. And also there are vertical and horizontal dimensions, and there are some varieties of curriculum one of them is spiral curriculum which popularized by Jerome Bruner. The physical facilities and the materials available also affect curriculum organization.

As I have learned from this materials. This material tells about the three approaches to make a curriculum organization. Three major of curriculum organization are structure of the discipline, a behavioral, and experiential perspective and curriculum should be organized around fundamental concepts, themes and principles and that from an understanding of these fundamental concepts the students develop the ability to derive particular facts and application. and as I see there are top down approach and bottom up approach. Top down approach is major actors is the scholars and a top down approach based on the theory of the discipline which assumes that we can deductively derive all knowledge from a small set of general, abstract idea and curriculum in to approach should be congruence between the discipline and the school curriculum in contrast with bottom up approach. In bottom-up approach is the most important determinant of learning is prerequisite learning and curriculum organization should be reflect the way people learn, rather than the way knowledge is organized the discipline . and about the project approach. As I got from this approach , it tells about the interaction between thought and action, project- centered curricula are organized around student activity, which the teacher and student plan together. and there are major claims of the project approach. Actually in this section, we divided into the groups and I read the major claims. For example the case of foxfire, The foxfire programs is perhaps the best- known current model of a project- centered curriculum, In this case the teachers asked to all of the students in the class room to make a magazine, so all of the students involved how to make a magazine. They will be editor, writer, or reporter

Besides explaining the material herself, the chapter discussed about curriculum organization. The term of curriculum organization could be defined as the elements those could be inserted in arranging curriculum. There are some basic structures in curriculums organization like content structures including discrete or flat, hierarchical, linear, and spiral. Another structure is media structure including parallel, convergent, divergent, and mixed. There are also organizational principle like subject material, learners and learning, teacher and teaching, milieu which is divided into social, economic, political, organizational and physical. And actually I do not understand in some pert of this chapter like the three parts I have mentioned in the previous paragraph. I got 75 percent of understanding from this chapter.

9. Frame Factors: Basic Concept    

In this meeting we have discussed about the frame factors in the curriculum that are used for limiting and constraining on teaching. The factors of frame include temporal frames, physical frames, political-legal frames, organizational frames, personal or personnel frames, economic frames, and cultural frames. So, from this explanation, teacher should have ability to manage the class room, create a police state and derive some satisfaction from teaching, and evaluate students.

We have learned about the frame factors, and as my understanding about this materials. this materials tells about the frame factors that involved curriculum like the task of teaching, temporal frame, Physical frame, Political- Legal Frames, Organizational frames, personal frames, economic frames, and cultural frames. The task of teaching is important in curriculum implementation because the teachers have a big role to make the curriculum success. The tasks of teaching are coverage, mastery, management, positive affect and evaluation. In coverage (what kind of skill and experience that the student have to accomplish ) mastery ( The teacher have to mastery the knowledge ) Positive affect ( a good teacher have to be a good effective affect ) Management ( The teachers should manage the class, the teachers is like a manager in the drama). Another thing that I get from this material is about the personal frames, why personal frames can make a curriculum success because characteristic of the student population are a major determinant of the success or failure of a curriculum. Temporal frames focus on the time, because the time is the most precious resource of the teacher, As teacher we always seem to need far more time than is available. In fact if the time is not limited, there would be no coverage/ mastery dilemma, but because time is always in short supply, teachers are constantly making compromises based on priorities. and based on my understanding physical frames can make a curriculum success because if the school have a laboratory, field, and good facilities I think the curriculum will be success because the student can learned from the good facilities.

Another material is frame factors. Frame factors function as limitations or constraints on teaching, and thus on curriculum implementation. Frame factors directly affect the interaction like the availability of textbooks and the content knowledge of the teacher which is usually called by proximal. Then factor like budget size is termed distal or higher-order. In frame factors there are temporal frames, physical frames, political legal frames, organizational frames, personal frames, economic frames, and cultural frames. The perspectives like traditional, experiential, structure of the disciplines, behavioral, and constructivist which are described in the previous chapters are also discussed in this chapter. And the last, I felt not easy to understand about multicultural view and technology and frame factors. So, my understanding of this chapter is 65 percent.

10. Curriculum Organization: Conflicting Perspectives    

In this meeting we have studied about curriculum organization, it means that we have known how to organize the curriculum is using three approaches to organize curriculum: Top-down Approach (specific material or from the common to the specific), Bottom-up approach (from the specific material to the common one), and project approach. The three approaches have epistemological foundation, organizational principles, major claims (characteristics), and content structures those have differences in the context but have same purpose.

 And we have learned the basic concept of curriculum organization and I got my understanding about this materials.  First the curriculum organization divided into macro and micro organization. Macro level organization for the organization of courses to form of a progress and micro level organization are referring to the organization of a course or a unit. And the physical facilities and the materials available also affect curriculum organization. For example the available outdoor education facilities might lead to an environmental approach.  I got 80 percent for my understanding.

11. Curriculum Implementation      

As I got from this materials that curriculum should be implemented, and the experts gave teachers answers and solutions to question teachers never asked and to problems the teachers never had. and there is psychometric method; ( the teachers taught whatever it was going to be test) and curriculum implementation is assessed by determining whether or not teacher practice meet the criteria of curriculum developer, in there are inadequate materials, poor disseminations efforts or lack of provision change needed to help teachers use the materials. And there is collaborative approach, as I got from this approach, it tells that alternative assessment is encouraged and curriculum change is seen as a process of multiple implementations. I got 70 percent for this comprehension. I still did not catch the collaborative approach.

13. Curriculum Evaluation: Conflicting Perspectives        

This is the last meeting. This chapter talks about the deeper context about curriculum evaluation. Methods of assessment are discussed in this topic. The study of evaluation is a critical aspect of curriculum analysis. Contrasting different views bring tacit assumption underlying current practice into sharper release. It also discusses several models. Measurement-based evaluation is based on two assumption; that educational practice are justified by the learning outcomes educators seek to achieve and that these outcomes can be measured.

As I got from this materials that curriculum should be implemented, and the experts gave teachers answers and solutions to question teachers never asked and to problems the teachers never had. and there is psychometric method; ( the teachers taught whatever it was going to be test) and curriculum implementation is assessed by determining whether or not teacher practice meet the criteria of curriculum developer, in there are inadequate materials, poor disseminations efforts or lack of provision change needed to help teachers use the materials. and there is collaborative approach, as I got from this approach, it tells that alternative assessment is encouraged and curriculum change is seen as a process of multiple implementation

 The other models are integrated evaluation. This kind of evaluation focuses on trivial and contrived tasks. There are characteristics of integrated evaluation such growth oriented, student controlled, collaborative, dynamic, contextualized, informal, and flexible and Action-oriented. Growth oriented. According to experiential educators and evaluators using an integrated approach, educators have often lost sight of goals. Next, student controlled. Giving student a measure is to control over their environment by yielding a degree of decision making responsibility. Absolutely it is very interesting material, because it’s about evaluation. And I got the understanding 85 percent from this material.

Curriculum Changes in Indonesia

And we learned about the curriculum changes in Indonesia. From this section I knew that Indonesia has made change in curriculum development. It started from the curriculum 1964, 1968, 1975, 1984, 1994, 2004, 2006,  as I got from this section that curriculum in Indonesia is always changes. It is happened because of the situation in Indonesia. Like “Tritura” can affected the curriculum. And like curriculum in 1968; the purpose of this curriculum is to make people in Indonesia to be a strong and health and to increase the intelligence and the skills of the students in Indonesia and I got some comprehension from the difference of the curriculum itself. For example on competency curriculum (2004), it is focus on the student competence and this curriculum make a standard in test and students is autonomous learning ( it is mean that the students can learn not only in the school, but they can get the information from other sources) and on curriculum 2004 used measurement based and integrated evaluation for measure the evaluations of student and my comprehension about curriculum of KTSP is that on this curriculum the teachers or the headmasters of the school have a big right to develop the curriculum which is suitable with the students need.

IMPROVING LISTENING ENGLISH SKILL USING VIDEO MATERIALS

Improving Listening English Skill Using Video Materials

(Argumentative)

Nowadays, English is international language. Almost people want to be master in English. Consequently, English is to be learned in formal and informal institutions, such as: Schools, Universities, and Courses. Millions of people study English but only few succeed because they do not know strategies of learning for example; materials given.

Focusing on the materials given is very important thing which should be noticed in learning English. Because of that, the writer wants to give knowledge about learning English using video materials. According to Harmer (1991) and Sherman (2005) said that one of the strategies to improve English is using video materials, and meaning that video materials can be used in improving English which have the strengths and weaknesses.

The strengths of video materials in improving English according to Brumfit (1983) are: The first, video can give picture to the students. It means that video can help to understand the materials which are learned by learners. The second is video can help the learners’ to comprehend the language through watching. From watching the video, learners can get easy understanding the contents of material. The last is video can motivate and stimulate the learners to learn about English. Learners’ motivation can be grown using video material in learning English because from the video learners have been stimulated in easy English learning, therefore they will have big spirit learning English, and think English is easy for them.

And the weaknesses of video material in improving English are according to Sherman (2003) video materials are difficult for teachers if they are not well prepared in presenting materials, meaning that the teachers have to prepare more the video materials than other materials. Teachers unexpectedly prepare the materials without enough preparation. And according to Harmer (2001) that the teachers can not employ the video materials when they do not follow the procedures about how to create the activities that should be given to the students. In video materials, procedures are a base of learning process in improving English which has important thing. Teachers can’t get goals in improving English without using procedures of activities in learning English, and sometimes, the procedures make the teachers confused in learning process in the class.

After explaining the strengths and weaknesses of video materials, the little conclusion is that learning using video materials can be done by selecting video materials before presenting in to the learners. And the learners are just watching and listening toward the materials, after that they can discuses and answer the questions given by teachers. And using video materials can improve learners’ English without denying other strategies.

SASTRA GAYA KEILMUAN bukan GAYA SEKS

Sastra (Indonesia) Gaya Intelektualisme BUKAN Gaya Seks

Bertaburannya karya sastra Indonesia dewasa ini ternyata banyak yang hanya menjadi bahan bacaan pengisi waktu lenggang dan sebagai bahan bacaan hiburan semata. Para pembaca dan penikmat karya sastra kurang sekali melakukan kritik apalagi memberi saran. Mereka lebih banyak sebagai konsumen, penikmat atau bahkan pecandu, belum menciptakan produksi baru dari karya sastra yang telah dibaca misalnya, melakukan kritik sastra yang membangun dan mencerdaskan.

Masalah itu juga terletak pada pengarang yang memanjakan penikmatnya dengan menyuguhkan karya sastra yang anti-intelektualisme dan cuma sebagai barang bacaan pengobat penat semata bahkan lebih dari itu, mengundang hasrat birahi secara manusiawi. Sejatinya, karya sastra itu memberikan semangat intelektual yang mumpuni bagi peminatnya dan menyuguhkan karya yang menyadarkan akan pentingnya memaknai realitas dalam ruang sastra atau sebaliknya.
Beberapa pengarang yang disebut anti-intelektualisme kita temukan dalam puisi primitivisme yang mengigit Sutardji Calzoum Bachri, puisi urakan Darmanto JT, dan puisi-puisi mistik Abdul Hadi WM. Dalam cerita pendek, Danarto adalah pengarang terkuat dari sastra mistik yang sama sekali bersikap anti-intelektualisme. Beberapa pengarang disebut anti-intelektualisme itu terdapat pada esai-esai budaya dan masyarakat karangan Kuntowijoyo terbitan Tiara Wacana 1997.

Sekarang, dengan perspektif yang berbeda, banyak karya sastra anti-intelektualisme bermunculan dengan tema yang bukan lagi melangit. Tetapi, karya-karya sastra yang menjadikan imaji seks yang liar, dan itu terjual dengan laris. Berbeda dengan para pengarang yang disebutkan sebelumnya, Ayu Utami dan Djenar Mahesa Ayu (Cerpen) misalnya, telah memancing beberapa pengarang muda yang lain untuk mengikuti jejak mereka yang menjadikan karya sastra begitu liar jauh dari kesantunan dan kesan keilmuannya. Salah satu cerpen Djenar Mahesa Ayu berjudul ”Memek”, menurut penulis terlalu vulgar, seakan tak ada bahan lain yang lebih mencerdaskan dan menyadarkan daripada mengarang seputar daerah selangkangan.

Banyak para ilmuan yang mengambil model sastra sebagai gaya keilmuannya bukan model sastra sebagai penggoda iman. Misalnya dalam buku Literature and the political Imagiantion (1996) yang diedit oleh J. Horton dan Andrea T. Baumesiter berbicara secara khusus tentang inspirasi yang bisa diambil dari sastra (terutama narasi) oleh ilmu politik, tentunya bukan dari karya yang bicara seputar selangkangan. Secara lebih umum buku serupa kita temukan dalam Contingency, Irony, Solidarity (1989) karya Richard Rorty yang pengaruhnya luar biasa–termasuk atas buku yang diedit Horton dan Baumesiter itu, sebagaimana yang ditulis ST. Sunardi dalam Majalah Basis dua tahun yang lalu.

Dalam hal model sastra sebagai gaya keilmuan, tambah maju kita bukan malah tambah puritan tetapi membuka lahan bagi intelektual humaniora untuk menjelajah wilayah-wilayah baru dan memberikan perangkat analisis yang sekaligus mengangkat posisi humaniora untuk ”membaca” gejala-gejala zaman. Menurut Melani Budianta (2004), bagi sejumlah praktisi kajian budaya seperti Tony Bennett dan Laura Mulvey, kajian budaya bukanlah sekadar pemberdayaan kaum intelektual humaniora. Ada harapan bahwa kemampuan membaca juga membawa kemampuan ”intervensi” terhadap sejumlah praktik budaya (karya sastra) yang menekan; bahwa dengan menunjukkan daya mempermainkan atau mengelak kekangan dalam berbagai wacana budaya sehari-hari.

Nah, oleh karena itu, manakah yang lebih penting, berkarya dengan berkutat seputar selangkang atau memberikan kesadaran melalui karya sastra yang menampilkan isi cerita yang berkualitas sosial dan intelektual? Lebih jauh lagi ST Sunardi mengatakan bahwa tema dan isi yang akan kita jadikan sebagai sebuah karya mestinya menggunakan bahasa yang longgar dan bermain dengan dirinya sendiri. Tetapi, tentunya pembaca mendapatkan manfaat, pencerahan, dan keindahan bahasa yang menggetarkan.

(AU: dalam pencarian)

 

 

SEKS & SASTRA

SEKS dan SASTRA[1]

            Sastra dan seks adalah dua hal yang sangat berjauhan, sastra adalah salah satu cabang dari ilmu humaniora sedangkan seks adalah bagian dari ilmu biologi, tetapi, itulah beruntungnya kita di”masuk’kan ke dalam golongan orang-orang yang harus intens terhadap humaniora sehingga apapun bisa kita hubungkan, karena memang pada dasarnya segala yang ada di muka bumi ini bersangkutan dengan kemanusiaan. Untuk itu sastra dan seks sah-sah saja untuk kita kolaborasikan.

            Sastra, menurut A.Teeuw adalah kata yang berasal dari bahasa sangsekerta yang berarti alat untuk mengajar atau memberitahukan.[2] Sedangkan menurut Hamdan dalam artikelnya “Sastra dan Agama” ia mengutip dari Bagyo. S (1986:7)[3] mengatakaan bahwa sastra biasanya diartikan sebagai karangan dengan bahasa yang indah dan isi yang baik. Bahasa yang indah artinya bisa menimbulkan kesan menghibur pembacanya. Sedangkan isi yang baik artinya berguna dan bernilai pendidikan. Indah dan baik ini menjadi fungsi sastra yang terkenal dengan istilah dulce et utile. Bentuk fisik dari sastra disebut karya sastra, penulis karya sastra disebut sastrawan.

            Sedangkan seks adalah 1. jenis kelamin, 2. yang berhubungan dengan alat kelamin, seperti senggama, dan 3. berahi.[4] Orang yang doyan seks disebut seks maniak, orang yang ahli membahas ilmu-ilmu yang berkaitan dengan alat kelamin disebut seksolog sedangkan ilmunya disebut seksologi.[5] Pada zaman-zaman sebelum abad 19, wacana ini sangat ditabukan, diskusi-diskusi mengenainya cenderung tertutup, bahkan mungkin itu hanya menjadi pembicaraan atas ranjang. Semua itu terlebih disebabkan oleh faktor budaya yang menganggap seks sebagai selera rendah manusia, untuk itu harus ditutupi, karena -lagi-lagi agama yang menjadi tamengnya, melarang umatnya untuk tidak mengkerangkengkan sesuatu yang katanya sebagai salah satu sumber kehormatan itu. Mallu!

            Dunia terus berputar, ilmu pengetahuan semakin berkembang, sains dan teknologi mencuat, semua informasi dalam hitungan detik dapat kita dapatkan, walau pun itu dari ujung dunia yang kita sendiri pun belum pernah menjamahnya, dengan bantuan teknologi. Lambat laun, seiring berkembangnya sains dan teknologi, masyarakat Indonesia kian egaliter, plural, kian menunjukkan kedinamisan, bahkan ke-liberal-an. Mereka sudah mulai menjauhi tabu, berani membuka tabir, terbuka membicarakan hal”tabu” itu, seminar-seminar yang membahas masalah ini cenderung padat dipenuhi peserta, buku-buku yang membicarakan seks kerap lebih bahkan sangat lebih laku ketimbang buku-buku yang lain. Salah satu contoh Moamar M.K dengan Jakarta Undergroundnya dalam satu tahun tercatat sudah kurang lebih lima kali  cetak ulang.

            Sastra yang dulunya sempat ditabukan juga, kini akan dengan mudah kita jumpai siapapun membaca karya sastra, hatta tukang beca. [6] Bahkan dewasa ini berkembang wacana sastra yang berbau-bau seks yang dulunya juga sangat ditabukan. Tetapi ironisnya kehadiran duet ini melahirkan kontroversial yang tak kunjung selesai. Sebagian golongan melihat perkembangan ini sebagai perkembangan wacana masyarakat Indonesia terkhusus penggiat sastra sehingga adalah wajar jika mereka melakukan intertekstual terhadap karyanya. Golongan kedua mengatakan bahwa karya-karya yang mengusung seks adalah karya-karya yang tidak mencerdaskan bahkan memalukan, karena karya itu tidak lebih mengajarkan pembaca untuk sama-sama membuka cawat, dan bersama-sama memainkan alat kelamin. Sedangkan golongan ketiga, adalah golongan orang yang menikmati karya-karya yang berbau seks tetapi juga menghujatnya.

            Fadhilah, seorang pengamat sastra, berpendapat bahwa teks seks dalam sastra Indonesia modern adalah mimikri tradisi sastra peradaban Barat di Zaman Victorian yang puritan[7]. Pendapat ini menguatkan pandangan Goenawan Muhammad yang menganggap seks adalah suatu resiko dalam kesusastraan Indonesia modern.[8] Seks dianggap sebagaii symbol reaksi, lambing revolusi menurut kesusastraan barat abad 19 dan awal abad 20.[9]

            Pada masa pemerintahan orde baru, teks social meupun politik dalam sastra Indonesia (sastra social) dianggap urusan subversif (tabu) dan mengandung resiko yang sangat fatal, seperti Pramudya Ananta Toer yang pernah masuk penjara disebabkan karyanya yang mengritik pemerintahan pada masa itu. Pada orde itu sastra sosial lebih beresiko ketimbang sastra seks, sehingga tangan-tangan penguasa  akan bebas memberangus teksnya maupun mencokok sastrawannya. Tetapi kini, resiko teks sastra seks (Saman; Ayu Utami, Jangan Main-main dengan Kelaminmu; Djenar Maesa Ayu, hanya menyebut beberapa) dalam kesusastraan Indonesia lebih beresiko ketimbang sastra social, mereka tidak lagi berhadapan dengan kekuasaan negara, melainkan menangguk sinisme maupun cemooh dari sebagian sastrawan, pengamat sastra, dan masyarakat kita sendiri dengan alasan “moral”.[10]  Seks sering dianggap mengganggu atau merusak, padahal yang terjadi adalah karena pandangan moral masyarakat sudah kadung mengganggap seks yang hadir terang benderang sebagai yang mengganggu dan merusak sehingga mereka mereka merasa terintimidasi atau terancam.

            Seks yang sering dikaitkan dengan ketelanjangan tubuh atau pornografi itu telah mengalami paradoks; dalam kehidupan sehari-hari keberadaannya diterima sebagai sesuatu yang alami, tetapi dalam falsafah maupun pandangan moral masyarakat sering dipersoalkan penuh ketegangan. Bukankah seks yang diterima sebagaimana adanya, secara rileks layaknya tubuh yang telanjang, adalah juga dapat menjadi metafor tentang kebanaran yang membuka seluruh tabir penyekatnya?[11]

            Berbeda dengan Goenawan Muhammad, ia berpendapat bahwa selama keintiman dengan khalayak belum pulih kembali dalam diri seorang pengarang, selama hubungan antara kesusastraan dengan masyarakatnya belum tenteram, selama kesusastraan masih belum bebas dari sikapnya yang self conscious dan kikuk, selama itu pula banyak hal yang takut untuk dibicarakan atau sebaliknya terlalu keras diteriakkan, termasuk seks. Dengan demikian yang menjadi persoalan bukanlah hadir atau tidaknya seks adalam sastra, tetapi wajar atau tidaknya suatu pengucapan literer. Dengan demikian kita tidak bisa secara mudah menilai suatu kesusastraan yang tanpa seks sebagai lebih atau kurang, sebab yang menentukan di sini adalah sikap pengarang terhadap maslah itu.

(AU-dalam pencarian)

---

[1] Tema yang  membuat penulis penasaran akan keduanya. Tema ini datang dari curhatan temanya yang tak tahu kemana arahnya.

[2] A. Teeuw, Sastra dan Ilmu Sastra, Pengantar teori Sastra, Pustaka Jaya, Jakarta, cet. 1. 1984, h. 23

[3] www.cybersastra  03-09-2004

[4] Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, edisi ketiga, cet, 2, Jakarta, Balai Pustaka, 2002, h. 1014

[5] idem

[6] Konon katanya, dahulu kala, sastra adalah milik orang-orang krtaon, milik orang-orang yang berilmu, dan penggiatnya lebih dikenal sebagai orang yang ahli segala macam ilmu, .

[7]Fadhilah, Teks Seks, Sebagai Resiko dalam Sastra, Kompas, 28/11/2004. h. 17

[8] Goenawan Muhammad, Seks, Sastra, Kita, Sinar Harapan, Jakarta, cet. 2. 1981. h. 1

[9] Goenawan Muhammad, ibid, h. 9

[10] Binhad Nurrohmat, Menodai Sastra Seks, Kompas, 19/12/2004, h. 17

[11] Binhad Nurrohmat, ibid

HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

            England has a rich literature with a long history. This is an attempt to tell the story of English literature from its beginnings to the present day. The history of English writing begins very early in the Anglo-Saxons period and continues through the Renaissance, the Augustan and Romantic periods to the Victorian age, the twentieth century, and down to the present.[1]

            We study literature at the basic level because it is through reading literature that we not only learn history but also learn how to write. Literature also helps us see things through another person’s eyes.[2]It should be most useful right at the start of the course, or later as a resource for exercises in revision, and to help you reflect on value judgments in literary criticism. It may also be suitable for university students and the general reader who is interested in the history of literature.[3]

CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTESIS

Contrastive Analysis Hypotesis

Contractive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)  merupakan theory yang di landaskan pada pemikiran behaviorist yang menyatakan bahwa Bahasa kedua merupakan hasil perkembangan dari kebiasaan – kebiasaan. Selain itu kebiasaan lama memiliki pengaruh terhadap kebiasaan baru. Tokoh dari theory ini adalah Robert Lado (1960). Contractive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) adalah perpaduan antara teori dan metode, ada juga istilah Contractive Analysis (CA); ini adalah metode yang mengkontraskan 2 bahasa. Selai itu ada juga Contractive Hypothesis (CH); ini hanyalah sebuah asumsi.

A. Teori Contrastive Analysis Hypotesis (CAH)

Contrastive analysis hypotesis berkembang pada tahun 1950-an, di temukan oleh Robert Lado. Berdasarkan pemikiran behaviorist:

1. SLA (Second Language Acquisition) di lihat sebagai perkembangan dari membentuk kebiasaan yang baru.
2. Positife vs negatife transfer. Dampak dari kebiasaan bahasa pertama (L1) akan menghasilkan positif dan negatif transfer.
3. Pedagogical Assumption of CAH:

• L1 dan L2 diajarkan dengan proses pembentukkan kebiasaan yang sama.
• Dua komponen dari pembelajaran bahasa adalah:

1. Mimicry : kebiasaan yang mudah yaitu meniru dari apa yang kita dengar.
2. Analogy : pembentukkan kebiasaan yang kompleks melalui pola kalimat yang kita pelajari tetapi menerapkannya pada situasi yang baru.

 

B. Contranstive analysis membagi dua jenis dari transfer:

1. Positif transfer : ketika kebiasaan aturan yang ada dalam bahasa L1 sama dengan bahasa L2.

Contohnya : saya makan bubur

                     I eat porridge (Positif transfer)

2. Negatif transfer : kebiasaan L1 (bahasa ibu) akan menyebabkan errors pada pembelajaran L2 (bahasa yang sedang dipelajari).

Contohnya : Gadis cantik

                     Girl beautiful ~ (Negatif transfer) error

 C. 6 basic pedagogical assumptions of the CAH:

1. Belajar bahasa baru melibatkan pembentukkan kebiasaan berbahasa.
2. Sumber utama dari error dalam pengucapan dan  atau penerimaan dari bahasa kedua adalah bahasa ibu.
3. Seseorang dapat memprediksi kesalahan (error) dengan memberitahu perbedaan antara L1 dan L2.
4. Berdasarkan item 3 adalah semakin banyak perbedaan, maka akan semakin banyak error yang terjadi.
5. Apa yang harus seseorang lakukan dalam pembelajaran bahasa ke dua L2 adalah mempelajari perbedaannya. Persamaan yang tersembunyi bisa diabaikan secara tersembunyi.
6. Kesulitan dan kemudahan dalam belajar adalah ditentukan secara berturut turut dengan perbedaan-perbedaaan dan persamaaan-persamaan diantara dua bahasa.

 

D. Three versions of CAH

1. The strong version: Fries & Lado

The strong version mengemukakan bahwa kesulitan atau kesalahan dalam belajar L2 dapat diprediksi dengan membuat perbedaan dari dua bahasa tersebut. Dimulai dengan menganalisis linguisticnya dan kemudian prediksi kesalahan yang akan muncul.

2. The weak version: Wardhaugh (1970)

The weak version tidak berani untuk memprediksi kesalahan yang akan muncul, tetapi setelah siswa melakukan kesalahan dengan Contrastive analysis weak version bisa menjelaskan penyebab dari terjadinya erorr tersebut.

3. The moderate version: Oller dan Ziah Osseiny

Berbeda dengan kedua versi yang di atas, moderate version menekankan pada perbedaan yang kecil yang justru menjadi penyebab terbesar error dan kesulitan-kesulitan.

 E. Problem in CAH :

• Contrastive analysis menyatakan bahwa kesalahan siswa karena L1 (bahasa ibu), tapi hal itu dibantah karena dari semua bahasa ibu yang berbeda mereka melakukan kesalahan yang sama.
  contoh: over-regularization dari bentuk seperti He comed.
• Ada kesalahan yang sumbernya tidak ada di L1.
• Negatif transfer tidak selalu terjadi meskipun pola kalimatnya berbeda.
• Contrastive analisis tidak memperhatikan afektif faktor dari siswanya.
• Membedakan atau memetakan  bagian bahasa L1 & L2 itu sulit karena tidak selalu spesifik.